The
term Indian philosophy (Sanskrit: Darshanas)[1]
may refer to any of several traditions of philosophical thought that originated
in the Indian subcontinent. Traditionally, six schools of thought propagated
Vedic wisdom, each from a different philosophical perspective. The sad-darshana (six philosophical views)
are nyaya (logic), vaisesika (atomic theory), sankhya (analysis of matter and spirit),
yoga (the discipline of
self-realization), mimamsa (science
of fruitive work) and vedanta
(science of God realization).[2]
This paper deals with the Vaisheshika philosophy. Vaisheshika traces the
variety of the objects of the world to the combination of material atoms of
different kinds and qualities. The Vaisheshika philosophy is pluralistic
realism which emphasizes that diversity is soul of the universe.[3]
This paper discusses in brief some major concepts of this philosophy.
1.
Definition:
Vaisheshika, also Vaisesika (Sanskrit: वैशॆषिक, Vaiśeṣika), is one of the six Hindu schools of philosophy (orthodox Vedic systems) of India, which
is primarily a system of physics and metaphysics that
classifies all objects of experience into several categories, and postulates
that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a finite number
of atoms.[4]
2.
Terminology
The
Vaisheshika system takes its name from visesa,
or particularity. It insists that it is in the particulars of the world,
pre-eminently in the particular imperceptible souls and atoms that true
individuality is to be found.[5]
Though the particular selves have cosmic and social relations, through which
alone they can realise themselves, yet they retain their selfhood in spite of
all these relations.[6]
3.
Literature
The
first systematic exposition of the Vaisheshika philosophy is found in the Vaisesika
Sutra of Kanada. The real name of the author of the Sutra seems to have
been Kasyapa. His work is divided into ten books.[7]
Prasastapada’s Padarthadharmasamgraha could
be considered not as a commentary on the Sutra, as it is an important
independent work on this subject. Four commentaries were written on
Prasastapada’s work, which are Vyomsekhara’s Vyomavali, Sridhara’s Nyayakandali,
Udayana’s Kiranavali and Srivatsa’s Lilavati.[8]
4.
Epistemology
Unlike
Nyaya philosophy which accepts four
independent sources of knowledge - perception (pratyaksa), inference (laingika),
remembrance (smrti) and intuitive knowledge (arsajnana), Vaisesika
accepts only two - perception and inference.[9]
Perception enables us to apprehend substances, qualities and actions. Gross substances, which are made up of parts
are within the reach of perception, while atoms and diads are not. The
Vaisheshika admits yogic perception, by which the perceptual cognition of the
soul (atmapratyaksa) arises. The
Vaisheshika brings comparison (upamana),
tradition (aitihya) and verbal
knowledge (sabda) under inference.[10]
5.
The Categories
A
brief description of Padarthas and
their classification are provided below:
5.1.
The concept of Padartha
Padartha
means literally the means of a word. A padartha is an object which can be
thought (artha) and named (pada). All things which exist, which can
be cognised and named, in short, all objects of experience, and not merely the
things of the physical world, are padarthas.
The categories of the Vaisheshika attempt
a complete analysis of the objects of knowledge.[11]
5.2.
Classification of Padarthas
Padartha
literally means the object denoted by a word. Hence, by padartha it is meant that all objects of knowledge or all real. Now,
according of the Vaisheshika, all objects, denoted by words, may be broadly
divided into two classes, namely being and non-being (bhava and abhava). Being
stands for all that is or for all positive realities, such as existent physical
things, minds, souls etc. Similarly non-being stands for all negative facts
like the non-existence of things.[12]
The
Vaisheshika adopts a six fold classification of padarthas into substance (dravya),
quality (guna), activity (karma), generality (samanya), particularity (visesa)
and inherence (samavaya), to which a
seventh non-existence (abhava) was
added by the later Vaisheshikas, Sridhara,
Udayana and Sivaditya.[13]
5.3.
Brief description of each category
5.3.1.
Substance (dravya):
Dravya,
substance, is that in which a quality or an action can exist but which in
itself is different from both quality and action. Without substance, there
cannot be a quality or an action because substance is the substratum of quality
and action, and it is also the material cause (samavayikarana) of the composite things produced from it.[14]
There
are nine kinds of substances: earth (prithvi),
water (jala), light (tejas), air (vayu), ether (akasa),
time (kala), space (dik), soul (atma) and mind (manas).
The first five of these are called physical elements (panchabhuta) because each of them possesses a specific quality (visesa guna) that can be perceived by an
external sense faculty. Each of the senses is composed of elements, whose
distinguishing qualities are registered by specific sensory receptors.[15]
5.3.2.
Quality (guna)
Quality
the second of the seven categories cannot exist by itself but exists only in a
substance. It cannot, therefore, be the constituent or material cause of
anything’s existence. It may be considered a nonmaterial cause of things,
however, because it determines the nature of a thing.[16]
There
are twenty-four kinds of qualities: rupa
(color), rasa (taste), gandha (smell), sparsa (touch), sabda
(sound), sankhya (number), parimana (magnitude), prthaktva (distinctness), samyoga (conjunction or unions), vibhaga (separation), paratva (remoteness), aparatva (nearness), buddhi (cognition), sukha (pleasure), dukha
(pain), iccha (desire), dvesa (aversion), prayatna (effort), gurutva
(heaviness), dravatva (fluidity), sneha (viscidity), samskara (tendency), dharma
(merit or virtues), and adharma
(demerit or nonvirtue).[17]
5.3.3.
Karma (action)
Karma (action) is
viewed in the Vaisesika School as being physical movement. But the term
physical here refers to more than just bodily movements because in Vaisheshika,
mind is also considered to be a kind of substance. Just like quality, the
second category of reality, action also exists only in a substance and cannot
exist by itself. It is, however, completely different from both quality and
substance. The substance of a thing supports both quality and action.[18]
There are five kinds of action: upward, downward, inward, outward, and linear.
The action of perceptible substances like earth, water, fire, and air can be
perceived by the five senses, but not all of the actions of tangible substances
can be perceived. The movement of the Earth, for example, cannot be perceived;
it can only be inferred.[19]
5.3.4.
Generality (samanya)
Samanya
refers to an abstract characteristic that is singular and eternal (nitya) and
yet pervades many.[20]
Samanya, generality, is the essence
of the common characteristic that unites different entities into one class.
Hence, modern scholars sometimes translate samanya
as “universality.” Vaisesika recognizes three levels of generality or
universality: highest, lowest, and intermediate. The highest kind of generality
is existence itself (satta).
Beingness or the state of being is the highest generality because all other
universals are subsumed under it; it is all-pervading, and nothing is excluded
from it. The lowest kind of generality has the most limited referents (such as
Indian-ness, pot-ness, and chair-ness, which are the generalities present in
all Indians, pots, and chairs, respectively). Concepts such as substantiality
(having the nature of substances) represent the intermediate level of
generality because they do not include many other categories of reality like
quality, actions and so on.[21]
5.3.5.
Visesa (uniqueness)
Visesa
(uniqueness) is that characteristic of a thing by virtue of which it is
distinguished from all other things. Like the imperceptible substances of
space, time, direction, soul, and mind, visesa
is abstract and is therefore eternal. Everything in the world, regardless of
whether it is existent or nonexistent, is accompanied by uniqueness. Generality (samanya) and uniqueness (visesa)
are opposite concepts.[22]
5.3.6.
Inherence (samavaya)
There
are two kinds of relationships between things: conjunction (samyoga), and inherence (samavaya). Conjunction is one of the
twenty-four qualities (gunas) of vaisesika, but inherence is one of the
seven categories described in this system. Conjunction is a temporary, non-eternal
relationship between two things that may be separated at any time.[23]
Inherence on the other hand, is a permanent relation between two entities, one
of which inheres in the other, as for example in the relation of the whole in
its parts, a quality in its substance, or the universal in the individual.
An
inherent relation is not temporary and is not produced. The relation that
exists between a whole and its parts, for instance, is not produced because the
whole is always related to its parts. As long as the whole is not broken up, it
must exist in the parts. Thus inherence is an eternal or permanent relation
between two entities, one at which depends for its existence upon the other
(the whole cannot exist separate from its parts). Two terms within an inherent
relationship cannot be reversed, as can those that are related by conjunction.[24]
5.3.7.
Abhava (nonexistence)
Abhava
(nonexistence) the seventh and last
category of reality is negative in contrast to the first six categories, which
are positive. Nonexistence is not found in any of the six positive categories,
and yet according to vaisesika philosophy nonexistence exists, just as, for
instance, space and directions do.[25]
There
are two kinds of nonexistence: the absence of something in something else (samsargabhava), and mutual nonexistence
(anyonyabhava). The absence of
something in something else is of three kinds: antecedent nonexistence (pragbhava),[26]
the nonexistence of a thing after its destruction (pradhvamsabhava), [27]
and absolute nonexistence (atyantabhava).[28]
Mutual
nonexistence (anyonyabhava), the second of the two major divisions of
nonexistence, is the difference of one thing from another. When one thing is
different from another, they mutually exclude each other, and there is the
nonexistence of either as the other. For example, a pen is different from a
book, so there is nonexistence of the book in the pen and of the pen in the
book.[29]
6.
The Concept of the Creation and
Annihilation of the World
6.1.
Supreme Being and operation of atoms:
Vaisheshika holds to the atomic theory of existence, according to which the
entire universe is composed of eternal atoms. But at the same time, Vaisheshika
does not ignore the moral and spiritual laws that govern the process of union
and separation of atoms.[30]
According to Vaisheshika the functioning of atoms is guided or directed by the
creative or destructive will of the Supreme Being. The will of the Supreme
Being directs the operation of atoms according to the unseen deserts[31]
(adrsta) of individual souls and with
reference to the end of moral dispensation.
6.2.
Aspects of universe: Vaisheshika
states that the universe has two aspects, one eternal and one non-eternal. The
eternal constituents of the universe are the four kinds of atoms (earth, water,
fire, and air) and the five substances (space, time, direction, mind, and
self). These are not subject to change, and they can be neither created nor
destroyed. Another part of the universe is non-eternal, i.e., subject to
creation and destruction in a particular time and spaces In the beginning of
creation two atoms are united into a dyad, which is non-eternal because it can
be divided again into two. The dyads and atoms cannot be perceived but are
known through inference. The combination of three dyads is called a triad
(tryanuka), which is the smallest perceptible object. It is from these triads
that other larger compounds develop. Thus the common elements comprised of
eternal atoms are non-eternal because they can be broken down into smaller
units.
6.3.
The karmic factor: The entire
universe is a systematic arrangement of physical things and living beings that
interact with one another in time, space, and direction. Living beings are the
souls of the selves who enjoy or suffer in this world, depending on their
meritorious or non-meritorious past impressions (adrst). Thus, according to Vaisheshika philosophy, the world is a
moral stage on which the life and destiny of all individual beings is governed,
not only by the physical laws of time and space but also by the moral law of
karma. In the performance of present karma, an individual is free and is thus
the creator of his own destiny, but the starting and ending point of the
universe depends on the creative or destructive will of the Supreme Being, God.
The universal law of the process of creation and annihilation influences the
individual selves to function or to be active in the direction of the creative
will. Directed by this unknown force of adrsta,
the soul makes contact with an atom of air; thus, the primeval motion comes
into being. That primeval activity in air atoms creates dyads, triads, and all
the rest of the gross physical manifestations of air elements (mahabhutas). In a similar manner, there
arises motion in the atoms of fire, water, and earth, which then compose the
gross elements of fire, water, and earth. In this way the vast expansion of the
physical world comes into existence.
6.4.
Creation of the world: After this and
by the mere thought (abhidhyana) of the
Supreme Lord who is the ruler of the whole universe, there appears the embryo
of a world (brahmanda) out of the
atoms of light and earth. God animates that great embryo with Brahma, the world-soul,
who is endowed with perfect wisdom, detachment, and excellence (jnana, vairagya and aisvarya). To
Brahma God entrusts the work of creation in its concrete details and with
proper adjustments between merit and demerit, on the one hand and happiness and
misery on the other.
6.5.
Destruction of the world: At the end
of life, the process of dissolution and annihilation also depends on the will
of God. He inspires the adrsta
corresponding to the individuals or to the universe, and then a destructive
motion in the atoms of the body and senses or in the cosmos starts vibrating.
On account of this destructive motion, there arises the process of disjunction
and disintegration of the body and senses or of the universe. Compound things
break down into simpler and simpler components, finally devolving into the
state of triads and diads and ultimately into atoms. In this manner the
physical elements of earth, water, fire, and air and the related sense organs
are disintegrated. After the dissolution of the manifest universe, there remain
the four kinds of atoms of earth, water, fire, and air as well as the eternal
substances of space, time, direction, mind, and soul, with their stock of
merit, demerit and past impressions (bhavana).
Thus, according to the Vaisheshika system of philosophy, there is no creation
or annihilation but rather an orderly and morally systematized composition and
decomposition of compounds.
Conclusion
Vaisheshika
is a realistic philosophy which combines pluralism with theism. It traces the variety of the objects of the
world to the combination of material atoms of different kinds and qualities. Though
theistic, the Vaisheshika idea of God is wholly transcendent to and separate
from humans and world. The special contribution of the Vaisheshika philosophy
is the classification of realities and its atomic cosmology. The Vaisheshikas
harmonize the atomic theory with the moral and spiritual outlook of life and
the theistic faith in God as the ‘creator’ and moral governor of the world. But
they do not carry their theism far enough and make God the author not only of
the order of nature but also of its ultimate constituents, viz. The atoms,
minds and souls, and see God at heart of all reality.
Bibliography
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Shantanu. Indian Philosophy. New
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Hiriyanna, M. Outlines of Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
Publishers, 1994.
Perret, Roy. Indian Philosophy: Metaphysics. New York: Garland Publishers, 2001.
Puligandla, Ramakrishna. Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy. New
Delhi: D.K.Printworld
Publishers, 2008.
Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Safaya, Raghunath. Indian Psychology. New
Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1975.
Sharma,
Chandrasekhar. A Critical Survey of
Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
Publishers, 2013.
Singh,
Acharya Phool. Indian Religious
Philosophy. Jaipur: Sublime Publications, 2010.
Webliography
[1]
Shantanu Bose, Indian Philosophy (New Delhi: Alfa
Publications, 2010), 1.
[2]
Raghunath Safaya, Indian Psychology (New
Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1975), 3-4.
[3]
Chandrasekhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy
(Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 2013), 175. Hereafter referred to as
Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian
Philosophy…,
[4]
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Vaisheshika (accessed on 24-02-17;
03:00 PM)
[5]
M.Hiriyanna, Outlines of Indian
Philosophy (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1994), 177.
[6]
S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy (New
Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999), 176. Hereafter referred to as
Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy...,
[7]
Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy..., 178.
[8]
Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy…, 175.
[9]
Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy...,
181-182.
[10]
Roy Perret, Indian Philosophy:
Metaphysics (New York: Garland Publishers, 2001), 127.
[11]
Ramakrishna Puligandla, Fundamentals of
Indian Philosophy (New Delhi: D.K.Printworld Publishers, 2008), 158. Hereafter referred to as Puligandla,
Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy...,
[12] Acharya Phool Singh, Indian Religious Philosophy (Jaipur:
Sublime Publications, 2010), 118. Hereafter referred to as Singh, Indian Religious Philosophy…,
There are
six kinds of being or positive realities, namely, substance, quality, action,
generality, particularity and inherence. To these the later Vaisheshikas added
a seventh padartha called abhava
which stands for all negative facts.
[13]
Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy…, 176.
[14] Puligandla,
Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy..., 177.
A cloth, for example, is formed by the combination of number threads of certain colour. The threads are the material or constitutive causes of the cloth because it is made of the threads that subsist in the cloth.
A cloth, for example, is formed by the combination of number threads of certain colour. The threads are the material or constitutive causes of the cloth because it is made of the threads that subsist in the cloth.
[15] Singh, Indian Religious Philosophy…, 119.
For example, smell is the particular property of the earth, and it is apprehended by the nostrils. Taste is the particular property of water, which is perceived by the tongue. Colour is the particular property of light, and it is discerned by the eyes. Touch is the particular property of air, which is experienced by the skin. And sound is the particular property of ether (akasa), which is received by the ears.
For example, smell is the particular property of the earth, and it is apprehended by the nostrils. Taste is the particular property of water, which is perceived by the tongue. Colour is the particular property of light, and it is discerned by the eyes. Touch is the particular property of air, which is experienced by the skin. And sound is the particular property of ether (akasa), which is received by the ears.
[16] Puligandla,
Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy..., 166.
[17] Singh, Indian Religious Philosophy…, 119.
[18]
Quality is the static character of things, and action is their dynamic
character, which is regarded as the independent cause of their union and
disunion. Action or movement is always dependent on substances -- earth, water,
fire, air, and mind. It is impossible to find action in the intangible
substances -- space, time, direction, and soul -- because each is an
all-pervading substance, whose position cannot be changed.
[19] Singh, Indian Religious Philosophy…, 124-125.
[20] Singh, Indian Religious Philosophy…, 125.
For example, leadership is a single characteristic, but it resides in many individuals. Leadership is also eternal because it was already in existence before the first leader emerged, and it will continue to exist even if there are no more leaders. All the things of a certain class - such as men, or cows, or puppies, or horses - share common name because of the common nature they possess.
For example, leadership is a single characteristic, but it resides in many individuals. Leadership is also eternal because it was already in existence before the first leader emerged, and it will continue to exist even if there are no more leaders. All the things of a certain class - such as men, or cows, or puppies, or horses - share common name because of the common nature they possess.
[21] Singh, Indian Religious Philosophy…, 125.
[22] Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy…, 180-181.
[23]
In this kind of relationship, two or more things exist together, but each
remains essentially unaffected by the other(s). For example, when a chair and a
table are conjoined together, this does not change the existence of the chair
or table. Thus, conjunction is an external relationship existing as an
accidental quality of the substances related to it. A conjunctional relation is
temporary and is produced by the action of either or both of the things related
to it. For example, the relation between a man and a chair on which he is
sitting is temporary.
[24]
For example, in order for there to be a conjunctional relation of hand and pen,
pen and hand must both be in some kind of contact with each other, but in an
inherent relation this is not necessary. A quality or action is in a substance,
but the substance is not in the quality or action; there is colour in cloth,
but no cloth in colour; there is action in a fan but no fan in the action.
[25]
To illustrate: How does one know that there is no chair in a room? Looking into
the room, one can feel as sure of the nonexistence of the chair as of the
existence of the carpet or of the people. Therefore, nonexistence also exists
as such.
[26]
Antecedent nonexistence refers to the nonexistence of a thing prior to its
creation. For example, in the sentence, “A book will be written using this
paper,” the book is nonexistent in the paper. This type of nonexistence does
not have a beginning, but it does have an end. The book never existed before it
was written; therefore, there is a beginning-less nonexistence of the book. But
when it does come to be written, its previous nonexistence will come to an end.
[27]
In direct contrast to antecedent nonexistence, the nonexistence of a thing
after its destruction has a beginning but does not have an end. For instance,
when a jar is broken into pieces, then there is nonexistence of that jar. The
nonexistence of the jar begins with its destruction, but this nonexistence
cannot be ended in any way, because the same jar cannot be brought back into
existence.
[28]
The type of nonexistence that does not belong to a particular time and space
but is in all times is called absolute nonexistence. This type of nonexistence
is neither subject to origin nor to end. It is both beginning less and endless.
Examples are the nonexistence of the son of a barren couple or the nonexistence
of colour in the air.
[29] Singh, Indian Religious Philosophy…, 130.
[30]
In this way, the atomic theory of Vaisheshika is different from the atomic theory
of modern science. Modern science's theory proposes a materialistic philosophy;
it explains the laws of the universe as mechanical, as being the result of the
motions of atoms in infinite time, space, and direction. According to this
view, the operation of the atoms is governed by mechanical laws.
[31]
http://www.dictionary.com/browse/desert (accessed on 24-02-17; 03:00 PM)
Deserts: what a person deserves with regard to reward or (more usually) punishment.
Deserts: what a person deserves with regard to reward or (more usually) punishment.
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